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Key-words: Comparative religion; emptiness; fullness; nothingness; God; Idealist philosophy; compassion; ethics; reincarnation;
spiritual cognition; spiritual experience; Buddhism; Jewish mysticism; Indian Philosophy.
Abstract
In the literature we have found correspondence of several significant traits of Jewish mysticism with traits of Buddhism
and other systems of Indian religion and philosophy. Among the corresponding traits is the fundamental Idea of emptiness
or nothingness, shuunyataa in Sanskrit , ayin in Hebrew. Also corresponding are attempts to harmonize the idea of emptiness
with fullness,and with the experience of the secular world with its many things and concepts. We list eight significant traits
of Jewish mysticism, which we find correspond with traits of Indian religion-philosophies.
This is of course a study in comparative religion, but we also discuss some important relations of these Indian and Jewish
belief systems with modern science. We contend, that natural science is built on spontaneous sensory experiences; on this
basis concepts (including "material" objects) and theories are constructed (idealist philosophy). Likewise we think,
that spiritual experiences occur spontaneously and contribute to the basis of religious, mystic, and some philosophical belief
systems. We thus think, there are important parallels between scientific and spiritual cognition.
Introduction
In a widely known paper Katz (1978) emphasizes differences between Buddhist views and Jewish mysticism. Surely such differences
exist. Particularly, the central position of God in Jewish mysticism contrasts with the abscence of God in Buddhism.
Still, in the literature we have also found significant
similarities in Jewish mysticism to Buddhist and also non-Buddhist Indian views. Of course both Indian religion-philosophy
and Jewish mysticism have long histories, and each comprise several schools. The features we find corresponding may not be
found in all Indian or Jewish schools, some of them are restricted to certain schools only.
Some Significant Traits of Jewish Mysticism
1. Nothingness
God is fundamental in Jewish mysticism as in all Jewish tradition, but God is imagined in various ways. The experienced
scholar, Daniel Matt, professor of Jewish mysticism, Berkeley, USA, writes that "God is greater than any *thing* one
can imaginse, like *no thing*. (Matt 1990, p. 121) In the Jewish literature God is often referred to as nothingness (ayin
in Hebrew) or as Ein Sof (with no end, infinite) (Dan 2003, pp. 139-142; Matt 1990, pp. 127, 129 etc. and 1994, p. 29: Scholem
1955, pp. 5, 12-13, 25 and 1991, pp.51-52; Steinsaltz 1980, pp. 35-37).
2. Nothingness is also fullness
The negative theology in Jewish philosophy and mysticism emphasizes the understanding of God solely by means of "no",
but Jewish mystics of the kabbalist school (an important part of Jewish mysticism) see God as the paradoxical fullness of
the great divine nothing, and they maintain, that the nothing is infinitely more real than all other reality, more existent
than than all the being of the world, that it contains a wealth of mystical reality, and that the nothing is brimming with
overwhelming divine reality; it is the mahut, the "whatness", the quiddity of God. Ayin (nothingness) is said to
symbolize the fullness of being that transcends being itself, the mysterious palace of ayin, in which everything dwells (Matt
1990; Scholem 1955, p. 25; Werblowsky 1971, p. 30; Winther 1986, p. 126).
Jewish mystics also maintain that the world was emanated from God ( Kook quoted by Bokser 1998, p. 165; Matt 1990, p.
129; Scholem 1955, p. 221; Steinsaltz 1980, p. 37; Werblowsky 1971, p. 30).
The Jewish mystic of the hasidic school, rabbi Kalman Epstein wrote about the essence of divinity " That He was,
is and will be and that He is the ground and root of all worlds" (Jacobs, 1977, p. 220).
The idea that the world emanated from God is often understood in the way that the world also *is* God (Elior 1993, p.
59; Matt 1994, p. 24; Winther 1986, p. 124). This may give the impression, that there are two parts of God, the nothing, incomprehensible
to humans,and the emanation, the world which humans know. This would, however, contrast sharply with the strong belief in
Jewish tradition, that God is One, a unity. Kabbalist speculation (represented in the medieval book Zohar) is bent to the
task of escaping from dualist consequeences (Matt 1994, p. 24; Scholem 1955, p. 13 and 1991, p. 52). Various solutions have
been suggested.
Thus it is maintained , that the hidden God, of which nothing is known to us, and the living God of religious experience
and revelation are one and the same. There is a distinction merely from the human point of view (Elior 1993, pp. 60-61,77;
Matt 1994, pp. 68, 153; Scholem 1955, pp. 13, 220 and 1991, p. 52; Winther 1986, p. 124).
It is also said, that the something is the nothing in the mode of nothing, and the nothing is the something in the mode
of something (Matt 1990, p. 132).
Steinsaltz (1980, p. 36) writes in a more complicated way, that there is an unbridgeable gap between God , the infinite
and His finite creation, a gap that is more than a consequence of the inadequacy of the human mind. To bridge the abyss, the
infinite keeps creating the world. His creation being not the act of forming something out of nothing but the act of revelation.
The world being constantly created is also mentioned by Elior (1993, p. 61).
Shoham (1994, pp. 326-327) writes, that kabbalah views the inner self of man as identical to the universal awareness of
God. Man's pure self , his Ani, and God are one. The Ani does not reflect God - it is the Godhead.
Rabbi Shneur Zalman described the human soul as a "part of G-d above", a spark of Godliness which inhabits
the body in order to create an abode for the Allmighty in this world (quoted in Dubov 2005, section: The soul dimension).
3. No isolated or independent existence
In Jewish mysticism it is maintained, that there is no such thing as isolated existence, everything is linked with everything
else, and nothing exists outside God (Elior 1993, pp. 49-50; Scholem 1955, pp. 223-224).
The hasidic school teaches, that defending an independent sense of self is a sign of false pride. Independent existence
my be experienced from the human point of view, but not from God,s (Elior 1993, p. 50; Matt 1990, p. 139; Winther 1986,
p. 124).
For Kook all existence is an interdependent, or organic, universal whole. He noticed the great difference between human
personalities, but found that it is precisely through their differentiations that they are all united toward one objective,
to contribute toward the perfection of the world, each person according to his special talent. Throuh the fusion of all the
diverse minds and physiognomies there emerges a unified structure of consummate harmony (Bokser 1978, p. 6).
Steinsaltz (1980, p. 38) writes about the ten sefirot (emanations from God, fundamental in the world view of Jewish mysticism).
"The ten Sefirot taken together constitute a fundamental and all-inclusive Reality; moreover, the pattern of this Reality
is organic, each of the Sefirot has a unique function, complements each of the others, and is essential for the realization
or fulfilment of the others and the whole". Scholem (1991, p. 43) states, that the sefirots are connected with one
another by means of secret "channals", tsinoro
Kook's description (referred above) of human cooperation as well as the descriptions in this section of the interaction
between the sefirot actually have much in common with modern systems science (www.isss.org).
4. Reconciliations of conventional thinking with the world view based on God
As a bridge between conventional thinking and mystic experience kabbalists maintain: "All created existence has a
certain kind of reality to itself in which it appears independent .... But in the sight of the mystic the separate outlines
of things become blurred until they, too, represent nothing but the Glory of God and His hidden Life which pulsates in everything"
(Scholem 1955, pp. 223-224). The hasidic school teaches , that in the mystics gaze the world no longer appears as essentially
distinct from God. "If we perceive the world as existing (independently), that is merely an illusion" (Matt 1990,
p. 143).
Matt (1986, p. 367) writes about jewish mystics thinking that alignment of legal and mystical realms is not an imposition
or an overlap of one realm on the other, that the two are in fact one. Abiding in the presence of God, the social mystic abides
by the law.
5. Experience of nothingness
Within Jewish mystcism there are various views about human experience related to the divine. Devekut, meaning cleaving
to God, communion with God, is a fundamental and general experience, but among scholars there are different opinions about
how close the communion can be. Scholem (1955, pp. 122-123) writes, that even in an ecstatic frame of mind the Jewish mystic
almost invariably rertains a sense of the distance between the Creator and his creature, so it is only in extremely rare cases,
that ecstasy signifies actual union with God. But Idel (1988, pp. 35-73 and 1988a, section 12, pp. 123-134) proposes an alternative
view on descriptions of unio mystica in kabbalah. "far from being absent, unitive descriptions recur in Kabbalistic
literature " and he gives many examples. Also Jacobs (1977, p. 223) and Halevi (1979, p. 91) write about attaining the
unio mystica, or complete union with God.
Matt (1990, pp. 121, 128, 135, 140) states that the ayin cannot be known by thought, but can be experienced directly;
in this experience thought may be annihilated. Other authors describe the experiences of spiritual ascent and approacvhing
or uniting with God or ayin as associated with the qualities of blis, joy, and light and with annihilation or dissolution
of thought (Idel 1988a, pp. 77-83 and 184; Jacobs 1977, p. 151; Winther 2001, pp. 296-297).
The first step in the emanation of th world from the nothingness of God (the highest of the ten sefirot, the keter) is
often also designated as ayin or "the annihilation of thought" (Matt 1990, pp. 129-130 and 1994, pp. 40-41, 176).
Fortune (1995, p. 107) reports about her ascent towards keter ".... at the one occasion where I touched its outermost
edge, it appeared to me as a dazzling white light, in which all thought was completely annihilated."
The hasidic school of Jewish mysticism (founded around year 1750) is said to psychologize the kabbalistic material.. Ayin
does no longer belong to theology, but has bcome a psychological reality, the only state of mind appropriate for one, who
seeks to become a divine vessel. In the annihilation of the intellect distinctions vanish; all is equal. The mystic empties
himself and makes room for an infusion of divine wisdom from beyond the normal borders of consciousness ( Matt 1990, pp. 139-140;
Winther 1986, pp. 124,144-146). The immersion in nothingness does not induce a blank stare, it has been described as the highest
experience for the Jeiwish mystic, and it may be associated with extreme delight and enthusiasm, hitlahavut (jacobs 1977,
p. 219; Winther 2001, pp. 292-297). The state of ayin is said to engender new mental life through a rhythm of annihilation
and thinking; a hasidist, Lev Yitzhak of Berditchev, has declared: "When one attains the level of .... gazing at ayin,
one's intellect is annihilated .... Afterwards, when one returns to the intellect, it is filled with emanation." (Matt
1990, pp. 139-140) (Note 1).
6. Compassion directly related to religious views and experiences
Compassion and care ffor the welfare of other people are essential in Jewish mysticism (as in all Jewish tradition) and
is directly related to the religious views and experiences.
Steinsaltz (1980) writes, that the soul of man is a part of the divine (p. 51) and that any injury tto another person
is like doing an injury to the divine image of oneself (p. 169). A deeply entrenched phrase in the tradition is gemilut hassadim,
the granting of kindnesses which denotes a general mitzvah: to do good and help peope in every way possible (pp. 169-170).
Mitzvot (plural of mitzvah) are acts beneficial for one's fellow man and also acts of performing religious ceremonies.
Winther (2001) writes about uniting the desire to become absorbed in God with concern about the material welfare of associated
people (p. 266) and also states, that the more intense the search for God is in the heart of man, the more the love for all
humans will grow in him (p. 329).
Jacobs (1977, p. 219) writes , that if a man wishes to attain to the stage of refined prayer, with stripping away of corporeality,
he must study the Torah (the five books of Moses) and carry out good deeds.
The school of German hassidism respected the "heavenly law" which was particularly about social relations and
demanded altruism. In the state of true fear and love of God a flood of joy enters the soul and sweeps away every trace of
mundane and egoistical feeling (Scholem 1955, pp. 94-95; Werblowsky 1971, p. 35).
In the 20th century Kook (Bokser 1978) wrote: "Whoever contemplates divine ideas in their purity cannot hate or be
disdainful of any creature or any talent in the world, for through each does the Creator reveal Himself" (p. 8), and
he emphasized a love for all people and a love for all nations, expressing itself in a desire for their spiritual and material
advancement (p. 136). Kook also extended his concerns to animals (pp. 8, 22-23).
7. Reincarnation and its termination by perfection of the soul
Certain schools of Jewish mysticism, particvularly the lutianic and hasidic schools, believe in reincarnation. Each soul
has a task in tikkun, the restoration of the world, and in its own perfection or spiritual restoration. As long as the task
is not fulfilled the soul remains subject to the law of reincarnation, Rebirth of the soul in another body is not only a retribution,
but also a chance of fulfilling its task, which was not given the soul before, a continuing process of perfection. The soul
that has fulfilled its task can wait till after death for the perfection of the world as a whole; it can also return to help
another soul to fulfil its task and so escape further reincarnation (Halevi 1979, pp. 29-30 and 1986, chapter 7; Scholem 1991,
chapter 5; Steinsaltz 1980, pp. 63-65; Werblowsky 1971, p. 41; Winther 1986, pp. 71, 98-99).
8. Eating rules distinguish between levels of living things
Steinsaltz (1980. pp. 163-165) writes about the Jewiish rules of eaitng, that food is a matter of levels of essence,
graduating in quality of being from the level of matter to that of a living being , plants, animals and special kinds of animals,
with a proportionately increasing number of restrictions in t he way each type of food is prepared and eaten.
With respect to vegetables the only restrictions relate to t hat which grows in t he Land of Israel. The holiness of
the land gives things a higher level of being and sensitivity to holiness. All that grows outside the Holy Land is considered
edible.
With respect to animal meat there are general categories of prohibition. Most fish wit h fins and scales are permitted,
and there is no special preparation needed for eating fish. Of fowl there is a certain list of birds that one may eat; but
they have to be slaughtered in a special way, with the recitation of certain prayers and with the least possible amount of
patn and suffering. Even more severe are the rules concerning t he eating of th e higher animals. The slaughtering process
and the preparation before cooking are described with exactitude. More about Jewish eating rules, see Wikipedia (2006).
In the 20th century Kook has maintained that love is to extend to animals, precluding our eating of t hem (Bokser 1978,
pp. 22--23, 249). For a more extensive discussion of Jewish vegetarian views, see Anonymous (2006).
Cmparable Traits in Buddhism and in Other Indian Religion-Philosophy. Comparative Religion
The subsections are here numbered in parallel with the previous section.
1. Shuunyataa, emptiness, nothingness
Shuunyataa is fundamental in the Buddhist world vew, particularly in Mahayana Buddhism as taught by Nagarjuna. Shuunyataa
is not a thing or a concept as conventially understood. This Sanskrit term is translated into English as emptiness, voidness,
nothingness, or openness. This means that shuunyataa is empty of concepts (mental fabrications) and without boundary (infinite),
the open dimension of being (Dechene 2004; Hayward 1987, pp. 202-205, 262; Lindtner 1982, pp. 262, 275-277 and 1997a, 2003;
Wallace 1996, pp. 149-150, 159-160).
2. Shuunyataa is also fullness
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To the western mind it may appear paradoxical that shuunyataa can denote both emptiness and fullness, because it contrasts
with western logic which says that a thing can be either A or not-A. But shuunyataa is not seen as a thing,, and its being
both emptiness and fullness conforms with Indian logic which comprises the four possibilities: A; not-A; both A and not-A;
neither A or not-A (Bagchi 2002)
In Buddhism shuunyataa is not seenas emptiness only, but as transcendng and embracing both emptiness and fullness. Its fullness
is wondrous Being and also what is.
It is free from concepts and particulars, the totality of things as they really are, and the potentiality to give rise to
all phenomena as subject and object arise interdependently. Emptiness is seen as a mark or characteristic of every phenomenon,
and as the ground of all phenomena (Austin 2001, pp. 570-572; Epstein 1992, entry, emptiness; Griffith 1990; section 3; Hayward
1987, pp. 203-225).
Perhaps the combination of emptiness and fullness can best be illustrated to the Western mind by means of reports of
direct experience of the combination. An atheistic western scientist and materialist writes:
At this point I merged with the light , and everything, including myself, became one unified whole. There was no separation
between myself and the rest of the universe. In fact to say that there was a universe, a self or any "thing" would
be misleading - it would be an equally correct description to say that there was "nothing" as to say that there
was "everything" (Smith and Tart 1998, p. 100).
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